“I wanted my children to have the best combination: American circumstances and Chinese character. How could I know these two things do not mix? In America, nobody says you have to keep the circumstances somebody else gives you.” (Tan: 289)
The Legacy of Prejudice
Racism has created innumerable obstacles for blacks in America, likewise it has affected other non-whites as well. Asians have also faced fierce discrimination in America and have suffered as much prejudice as any other group.
Blacks, but not Asians, were granted citizenship in 1870 and the 1879 Constitution of California continued to deny the vote to “natives of China, idiots and insane persons.” (Taylor: 110)
As late as 1914, the Supreme Court upheld the principle that citizenship could be denied to foreign-born Asians and the Chinese were not allowed to become naturalized citizens until 1943. In addition to institutionalized racism, Chinese immigrants aroused resentment for their willingness to work for low wages.
Throughout this period of constant prejudice and persecution, the Chinese continued to work hard and built better lives for themselves and their families. Japanese came to America later than Chinese but when they arrived, they found that the strong anti-Chinese feelings had transferred to them.
During World War II, when Chinese were finally being granted the right to apply for naturalization, Japanese Americans living in the United States were rounded up and sent to concentration camps where they were kept behind barbed wire and guarded by soldiers.
Their property was either stolen or sold at a great loss. At the time, the Federal Reserve Bank estimated Japanese property losses at $400 million, a figure that would be equal to many billions today.
Regardless of the hardships and injustices that Japanese were forced to endure, they went back to what was left of their lives and started over.
Asians Today
Although both blacks and Asians have suffered through racism and prejudice, they remain separated by racism towards each other. In 1988, demonstrators in the Bedford-Stuyvesant section of Brooklyn chanted, “Boycott, boycott, close ’em down. Pass ’em by, let ’em die. Koreans out of Bed-Stuy.” (Taylor: 114)
In a twist of logic, black boycotters accused Koreans of racism. One black organizer stated, “It’s racist that we don’t own any businesses. This is a conspiracy against the black community.” (Taylor: 114) When a group of black businessmen in Bedford-Stuyvesant tried to work out a coexistence agreement with Koreans, other blacks accused them of “selling out.”
In January of 1990, a Haitian immigrant was involved in an dispute with the owners of a Korean grocery store in the mostly black section of Flatbush, Brooklyn. Activists started a boycott of the areas’ Asian-owned stores passing out leaflets urging blacks not to buy from “people who don’t look like us.” (Taylor: 115)
Over the next three months, the number of demonstrators grew yet the press didn’t begin to write about the incident until April. By May, the racial character of the boycott was so clear that David Dinkins called the boycott “inappropriate” and “intimidating.”
As the boycott wore on, it drew public attention to other anti-Asian incidents. Just blocks from the boycott site, a few blacks attacked several Vietnamese, whom they had mistaken for Koreans.
To further identify that this was clearly a racial issue, black activist “Sonny” Carson called for a boycott of all Korean stores in the city and stated that, “in the future, there’ll be funerals, not boycotts.”
There were many blacks who were outraged by the boycotts, the bravest being Fred McCray, a teacher at Erasmus High School. He took thirty students to that store to buy apples and the children had planned to make a peacemaking speech to the demonstrators.
The children never got the chance to make the speech due to the screams, curses and deaths threats aimed at McCray. McCray and his family continued to receive further death threats after the incident and was
transferred to another school.
In 1991, the rap musician Ice Cube included an anti-Asian message in his album Death Certificate:
“So don’t follow me up and down your market or your little chop suey ass will be a target. So pay your respects to the black fist or we’ll burn your store right down to a crisp.” (Briendel: 29)
The album was number two on Billboard’s album chart and sold more than a million copies. The anti-Asian message, that was included in that album, aided in the perpetuation of racist attitudes towards Asians.
Asian-Americans, as a group, have continuously been struggling to develop an identity for themselves and to effectively deal with the issue of racism. Although they are made up of different ethnic groups, they have been categorized under one label, Asian-Americans. In order to understand the situation, it is necessary to look at one specific segment of that group in detail.
The Forces that Shape
Chinese-Americans’ personalities must develop amidst a variety of different forces such as familial upbringing, the clash between Chinese and American values, and racism. Each one of these forces impacts the individual greatly in the development of ideas, beliefs and values.
The Traditional Chinese Family
Just as there is no typical American family, it is important to acknowledge the diversity among Chinese families and avoid overgeneralization. However, certain values and behavioral characteristics can be defined.
The traditional Chinese family structure is heavily influenced by Confucianism, emphasizing respect for ancestors and elders, and promoting the value of filial piety. The family unit is strong and maintains considerable control over its members, with a focus on obedience to parents, pursuing a good education, and upholding the family’s reputation or ‘good face.’
To achieve these ends, parents and other family members often use guilt and shame as tools of control, such as threatening to disown a person, verbally reprimanding them, or having them engage in activities that evoke feelings of guilt and shame.
The Chinese also learn strong patterns of self-control, self-sufficiency, and self-blame. Many Chinese believe that although the individual should be self-sufficient, that individual must also be capable and responsible for others in the familial unit.
Western Influences
Chinese-Americans are constantly exposed to Western values in the schools, the area which they live and through mass media. These values reflect the attitudes, norms, emotional expressions, and other behaviors characteristic of American society. It is inevitable that these influences will, in some way, affect the development of the Chinese-American’s personality.
Racism
Chinese-Americans experience both direct and subtle forms of discrimination in American society. Racism can be either individual or institutional. Individual racism involves a person’s attitude and behavior toward the Chinese. Many of the characteristics attributed to Chinese people (such as “they are” obedient, intelligent, hard-working and conforming) are merely stereotypes that can both benefit and harm.
Institutional racism refers to systematic discrimination in various institutions such as the government and educational institutions. For example, in the past, laws in some states prevented Chinese from marrying Caucasians.
Personality Development
Individual personality development cannot be accurately determined, as each individual creates their own unique process. However, the following diagram was constructed to illustrate a conceptualization of the Traditionalist, the Marginal Man, and the Asian-American. (Sue: 113)
Traditionalist
The Traditionalist has strong internalized Chinese values. Primary allegiance is to the biological family and in being a “good” son or daughter. Obligations as a spouse or a parent actually is secondary to the duty to ones parents. The Traditionalist’s self-worth and self-esteem are defined by the ability to achieve educational and occupational success. With success, the Traditionalist feels great pride because of the honor that the success has brought to the family name.
There are several sources of conflict that the Traditionalist must faces. One conflict is that the Traditionalist bears all responsibility for failure. That individual finds it difficult to blame parents because he/she has internalized their values. Blame is not placed on the limitations of society because the individual has been conditioned to believe that anything can be accomplished by hard work.
Another source of conflict is that despite the Traditionalists’ attempt to confine his/her social life to the Chinese subculture, interaction with other members of the American society is inevitable. Individual forms of racism increase anxiety and discomfort to the Traditionalist, who has not been taught how to respond aggressively to racism. Institutional racism is less of a concern to the Traditionalist, who believes that any obstacles can be overcome with hard work.
Marginal Man
The Marginal Man attempts to assimilate into the American society, rejecting traditional Chinese ways and risking becoming “over-Westernized.” Sometimes, the Marginal Man’s determines his self-worth in terms of his acceptance by those outside of the Chinese subculture. For this type of individual, sources of pride are in the number of non-Chinese friends or ability to speak English without an accent.
The Marginal Man also has his share of conflicts. Hostility and denial of the Chinese culture may cause the development of “racial self-hatred.” The Marginal Man also “finds it difficult to admit that wide-spread racism exists since the admittance of such a fact would mean that he aspires to join a racist society.” (Sue: 117) Also, the adoption of “over-Westernized” behavior, which is in opposition to parental values and to Chinese culture, may arouse intense feelings of guilt in the Marginal Man.
Asian-American
The development of the Asian-American is still in the process of self-definition which makes it difficult to determine the exact definition of the term. Therefore, only general impressions can be offered.
The Asian-American tries to formulate a new identity by integrating past experiences with present conditions. The Asian-American has concluded that “unquestioning obedience to parents is too painful; racism is too pervasive to ignore; pride in self is too underdeveloped.” (Sue: 117)
The Asian-American associates with other Chinese without embarrassment, as does the Traditionalist, and experiences guilt for disobeying parental dictation, like the Marginal Man. Also, there may be an attitude of intolerance towards the Traditionalist and the Margin Man because they are seen as threats to the Asian-Americans’ identity.
The Asian-American’s defiance is not a rejection of Chinese ways, rather it is an attempt to preserve certain Chinese values in the formation of a new identity. The Asian-American must be assertive, questioning and active in order to develop in the present environment.
Asian-Americans are more sensitive to the forces in society which have shaped their identities and places primary concern on challenging individual and institutional racism. Great emphasis is placed on raising group esteem and pride, “for it’s only through collective action that society’s perception of the Asian-American can be efficiently altered.” (Sue: 117)
Development of the Asian Community
The unity of Chinese-Americans with other groups (Japanese, Korean, Filipino, etc.) is part of a positive effort by the Asian-American to develop and form an identity. Asian Americans share common experiences partly because they are treated as one group by both governments and the general public.
For example, the U.S. Census Bureau classifies all Asian and Pacific Islander Americans as one group for statistical purposes. Likewise, local and federal government agencies and school districts lump all Asian and Pacific Islander Americans together when compiling data for policy and resource allocation purposes. For this reason, Asian and Pacific Islander ethnic groups need to make joint efforts to protect their interests in welfare, health, education, business, etc.
Asians have observable physical differences from other ethnic groups in American society. However, it is usually very difficult to distinguish between the different Asian ethnic groups through sight alone. Many Asian Americans have been physically attacked by other Americans who mistook them for members of other Asian ethnic groups.
Examples of such incidents are a travesty, not only because of the fact that they occur to individuals who do not belong in the specific ethnic group that the attack was intended for, but because violent acts are racially motivated. In 1982, Vincent Chin, a Chinese-American, was murdered with a baseball bat by two white men who mistook him for Japanese.
In 1990, a Vietnamese immigrant was severely beaten by black gangs in Brooklyn because they thought he was Korean. (Min: 31) Each incident led Asian-Americans to realize that they could be targets of attack by non-Asian Americans simply because they share Asian-American physical characteristics. One of the positive results that emerged from violent acts against Asian-American, is the enhancement of
Pan-Asian unity.
Pan-Asian movements are more active on college campuses than in Asian-American communities. Colleges and universities usually lump all Asian-American students together by classifying them into one racial category for administrative purposes.
The common experience of being identified in the same racial group, along with anti-Asian prejudice and discrimination on college campuses, led to the development of Pan-Asian consciousness. Asian-American students across the United States have established ethnic clubs and have engaged in protest movements to protect their common interests and to demand Asian/Asian-American programs and classes.
The Road Ahead
The history of Chinese in the United States is marked with episodes of individual and institutional racism, prejudice, and discrimination. However, despite pervasive racism and numerous obstacles, Asian-Americans have adapted and developed as a group.
Although, Asian-Americans are still underrepresented in corporate businesses and government, they are growing in representation and activism in the small-business sector and educational institutions. It is undeniable that Asian-Americans must continue to actively work towards gaining equality and eliminating racism, however, it is not a task that can be accomplished quickly or easily. Asian-Americans will have to persevere in order to achieve the goals and objectives that they want and deserve.
Works Cited
- Briendel, Eric. “Rap Star to Koreans: ‘We’ll burn you stores’” New York Post (December 5, 1991) p.29
- Daniels, Roger. Asian America: Chinese and Japanese in the United States since 1850. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1988
- Espiritu, Yen Le. Asian American Panethnicity: Bridging Institutions and Identities. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992
- Kwong, Peter. The New Chinatown. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux Publishing, 1996
- Li, Marjorie & Peter Li. Understanding Asian Americans. New York: Neal-Schuman Publishers, 1990
- Min, Pyong Gap, ed. Asian Americans: Contemporary Trends and Issues. California: Sage Publications
- Ng, Franklin, et al. New Vision in Asian American Studies: Diversity, Community and Power. Washington: WSU Press, 1994
- Sue, Stanley & Nathaniel Wagner ed. Asian-Americans: Psychological Perspectives. California: Science and Behavior Books, Inc., 1973
- Tan, Amy. Joy Luck Club. New York: Ballantine, 1989
- Taylor, Jared. Paved with Good Intentions. New York: Carroll & Graff Publishers, 1992
MAY NG 